Mission Statement
The mission of science education in Kansas is to prepare students as lifelong learners who can use their science training to make reasoned decisions that will be beneficial in their personal, career, commercial, political, and civic activities. All students, regardless of gender, race, religious beliefs, creed, cultural or ethnic background, future aspirations, should have the opportunity to attain high levels of scientific literacy. Science education in Kansas is not to promote one philosophical, religious or world view over another. The goal is "just science in the science classroom."
Dedication
The Kansas Science Education Standards are dedicated to all Kansas students. Our students are the future of Kansas. With this document, we hope to help create a science classroom environment that will help students learn the value, nature, limitations, and content of science which, in turn, will help them to know that as lifelong learners of science, we can live more productive, responsible, and fulfilling lives.
Purpose of Kansas Science Education Standards
The purpose of this document is to:
These standards, benchmarks, and indicators are designed to assist Kansas accredited educators in selecting and developing local curricula, carrying out instruction, and making assessments. Also, they will serve as the foundation for the development of state assessments of accredited school science programs. Finally, these standards, benchmarks, and indicators represent high, yet reasonable, expectations for accredited school students.
Students may need further support in and beyond the regular classroom to attain these science standards. Teachers and school administrators are encouraged to seek the participation of parents, and other community organizations and members to assist students in working toward meeting or exceeding these science standards.
These standards should not be viewed as a state curriculum nor as requiring a specific local curriculum. These standards should not limit nor curtail the development and inclusion of other topics of science in local curricula. The content embodied in these standards can be organized and presented with many different emphases and perspectives in many different curricula.
Background Information
The original Kansas Curricular Standards for Science were drafted in 1992, approved by the Kansas State Board of Education in 1993, and up-dated in 1995. At the August, 1997 meeting of the Kansas State Board of Education, the Board directed that academic standards committees composed of stakeholders from throughout Kansas should be convened in each curriculum area defined by Kansas law (reading, writing, mathematics, science, and social studies). The National Science Education Standards have been reviewed and used where appropriate.
Acknowledgments
This document was prepared by the Kansas State Board of Education with the aid of a Citizens Drafting Committee, and is based upon a substantial revision of the second working draft prepared by the Kansas Science Education Standards Writing Committee.
Concepts that merit emphasis in the science classroom
There is in science education a tendency to teach facts and theories without a real understanding of the fundamental principles of science. With these standards, there is a shift in emphasis to understanding. However, it must be stressed that without knowledge of facts and theories, there is no basis for understanding. Conversely, without understanding there is no basis for appreciating or evaluating facts and theories, or for making informed decisions based on scientific knowledge. These standards reflect the following emphases:
What is Science? - The Definition and Nature of Science
To properly learn or teach science it is important to understand what it is and its nature and limitations. The word "science" comes from the Latin word scientia, meaning knowledge. There are many types of knowledge; physics, chemistry, biology, religious, philosophical, natural history, origins research, etc., and in the past science was used to mean any of these kinds of knowledge. Today, however, the word is used to mean a certain kind of knowledge; knowledge that has been, in some way, verified. Two key processes are involved in the endeavor to acquire new knowledge: arriving at new knowledge and verifying it.
Arriving at New Knowledge or Proposed New Knowledge: e.g., Theories, Models, Hypotheses and Laws
The process used by individuals to arrive at ideas that may become productive new knowledge is very complex and varies dramatically among individuals. Often the following are included:
The culmination of these processes should be a concise proposal, usually called a Hypothesis, Theory, Law or Model. Science argues cogently for a hierarchy indicating degree to which the proposal has been tested, however, no such standards have ever been rigorously applied.
Verifying Theories, Models, Hypotheses and Laws &emdash; A Key Step in Science
Tests of theories ought to meet certain criteria.
Students should understand that the definition of empirical science is: Science which is observable. If a theory is not repeatable by independent tests it cannot properly be called a "scientific theory." If this type of theory or test is accepted, it is accepted on the basis of testimony, (which falls within the legal method of proof) not observation. For a more comprehensive discussion of Repeatability, see Appendix 2, What Is Science?
Students should understand that, to be a test of a theory, the test must be designed in such a way that failure would invalidate the theory. Tests of consequences of a theory may provide evidence supporting the theory and may be repeatedly successful, but may not be a true test of the theory. Theories that have not been tested with falsification tests, cannot be said to have been tested.
Students should learn to critically evaluate theories and their tests. They should also learn the basics of experimental design and the logic behind the basics.
Therefore, science is knowledge, but for modern scientific explanations to be considered valid, they must meet certain criteria:
- They should be internally logically coherent:
- They should be consistent with all experimental and/or observational data;
- They should be testable, by others, in such a way that, if the explanations are false, the tests can show that they are false, i.e. they must be repeatable and falsifiable;
- They should be tested by other scientists through additional experimentation and/or observation, and;
- They must be open to criticism
Since science today is defined as empirical and, therefore, inductive, all scientific theories are held tentatively. If direct tests on the theory have been repeatedly successful, these can and should be reported as lending support to the theory. If direct tests of the theory have not been made, or cannot be made, the theory is speculative. If tests have repeatedly failed to verify the theory, it should be modified, or discarded.
Even when many apparently successful tests have been made on a theory, it cannot be claimed to be true, theories can only be falsified. Theories can and do change as new evidence becomes available. Therefore, students should be called upon to examine, understand and challenge theories. Requiring affirmation only serves to deceive students and to retard progress in science.
(A more complete definition of science is included in Appendix 2: What Is Science?)
Areas of Science
Science is traditionally divided into two broad areas that cut across the traditional disciplines of science: Theoretical Science, and Technology. A third category of investigation is Natural history and origins research, often called Historical Science, but is truly much different than Theoretical Science and Technology. Each area tends to apply different kinds of reasoning and utilize different processes. These areas also define different levels of confidence. While there are certainly areas of overlap, there is generally a considerable distinction between the three areas.
Technology is the area of science that is often called "applied science" or "engineering," because it involves application of knowledge to attempt to improve man’s lot in life.
The Nature of Technology
Technology often uses explanations (theories) from theoretical science, though most technology was clearly developed without benefit of theoretical science. Technology tends to be extensively tested, but the tests tend to be designed for different objectives; efficacy, safety, cost/performance, value to the end user. It is important to note that the "extensive testing" common in technology does not assure that the theories and ideas utilized therein are true or, even the best that can be done. In fact the test criteria in technology are typically not aimed at verification as much as they are aimed at "economic feasibility," i.e., will the idea produce results economically that meet safety and efficacy requirements of the application.
It is technology that has given mankind "modern conveniences." See for example: Funk and Wagnell’s Encyclopedia as cited in Appendix 3.
A large number, but a modest percentage, of theories are thoroughly tested and are widely used in technology. For example, Ohm’s Law which relates the voltage drop across an electrical component when a current passes through it and the 2nd Law of Motion, which postulates the relationship between force, mass and acceleration has been tested so often and found to work in so many practical applications, that reasonable men employ it every day. However, because a theory, in this case the 2nd Law of Motion, is successful in many cases, it does not mean that it is proven or true. The point is that technology will not await the outcome of theoretical debates, though the outcome of these debates may impact technology at some point in time.
The characteristics of technology are:
Theoretical Science is the area of science that tends to constitute statements about some aspect of the natural world. Often theoretical science is quantitative and employs mathematics. Theoretical science typically involves explanations of how nature works rather than how to harness nature for man’s benefit
The Nature of Theoretical Science
Theories in empirical science are derived from human experience, wisdom and inductive reasoning. Theories ought to be tested using repeatable experiments or observations, carefully designed to show the theories to be false, if they are false. Repeated failure to falsify theories, increases confidence they may be true. They should also be tested by Peer and Public Review. The word theory, does not connote verification, nor imply earned acceptance. While this is understood by most people, it is often ignored by textbooks and proponents of theories. Often the phenomenon itself has been so widely observed and tested that it is used in technology, and yet, the explanation (theory) has not been tested, or has been tested very little, and may even have many opponents.
The characteristics of theoretical science are:
(historical geology, historical biology, paleontology, natural history, archeology, historical anthropology, etc.)
Natural History and Origins Research - consists of various activities whose outcome is intended to be knowledge of the history of the earth, life, and the cosmos. These studies generate much interest among all ages of people.
The Nature of Natural History and Origins Research
Explanations about events for which there were no witnesses and for which there exists no recorded history are entirely different than those which can be repeated today. Theories about the origin of the cosmos, life, and various kinds of plants and animals are often presented using the terminology and styles employed in science. They are often called theories, models, hypotheses and even "principles". But even if such explanations of the past are true, they are not testable using the tools of science. Such explanations may be supported by evidence that is testable, repeatable and falsifiable in the present, but the historical events themselves can never be repeated, and a priori assumptions must always be made to extrapolate that evidence or experiments of the present into the past. Regardless of how elegant or how much supporting data is claimed, such explanations cannot be valid unless the assumptions are valid, but there is no way to test the validity of the assumptions. Therefore, explanations about the past are not in the same category as statements about the biology of present life forms, the composition of rocks, or observations of the cosmos today which can be tested and verified by independent investigators conducting repeatable experiments and observations.
The characteristics of Natural history and origins research are:
The content of much natural history and origins research has extremely important implications involving where we came from, why we are here, how we should live, and what is our ultimate destiny. These implications rightly cause active debate. This does not mean the issue must be avoided, but does mean the teacher should handle the subject in a responsible manner. It is inappropriate to place theories concerning historical events before students, alongside other theories in geology, physics, biology, etc., which are required to pass rigorous testing.
Kansas Will Not Mandate Belief or Understanding of Any Natural History and Origins Research. There are two basic origins views; evolution and intelligent design. There are many variations usually consisting of elements of both these views, and some whose proponents may feel are different from either. These views are part of a whole class of natural history and origins research theories that do not qualify as empirical science. Natural history and origins research cannot be demonstrated, repeated, or falsified in the same manner as ideas which can be demonstrated in the present, and no proof can be advanced that one view is superior to another in ensuring successful research, much less good citizenship. Therefore, since no compelling secular purpose can be demonstrated, Kansas Science Standards will not mandate belief in or understanding of any natural history and origins research theory. We expect that most teachers will cover one or more origins views to some degree , however, Kansas will not include benchmarks or indicators for any of them. The decision about how to cover these topics will be left to the local districts and/or the classroom teacher.
It is obvious from the definitions of "Science" and "Theory," and from reflecting on the fragility of inductive reasoning, that teachers, whether teaching technological, theoretical or natural history and origins research, should refrain from making dogmatic statements about theories or requiring that students affirm them as opposed to understanding them. Accredited school teachers should refrain from teaching any theory, regardless of how popular, in such a manner as to censor evidence that tends to place the theory in an unfavorable light. The causes of good citizenship, science literacy, and critical thinking skills are not served by the censoring of scientific evidence or alternate theories. Ridiculing or in any other way discouraging students or faculty from introducing scientific information is unacceptable.
Teaching Technological Science
The science curriculum should strongly attempt to acquaint the student with the technology that supports the culture. Very few science students will, as an adult, have a job in Theoretical Science enabling them to engage only in production of new knowledge or new theories. The majority of students taking science courses will apply them in a field of technology or will apply them in making personal or public decisions. Even where pure research is being done, it is important that practitioners be well grounded in the facts and theories of science that have been verified by thorough testing to be reasonable descriptions of the way the cosmos behaves. It is virtually impossible to learn all these facts and theories in a lifetime, much less in a few years in primary and secondary education. Therefore, most science curricula should focus on understanding ideas in science that are substantially verified or currently widely employed in technological fields. However, this does not imply that technology should be taught as "true," it should be taught as being something that works.
Technology seldom relies on Theoretical Science or working hypotheses. Rather it relies on those ideas from the past that have been so thoroughly tested, often long before a theory was proposed, that they are now in common use and are often referred to as laws. It is the application of ideas and theories that earn them respect, not the number of scientists who believe them. The following is an illustrative listing of such laws that technologists apply everyday.
|
LAW |
DESCRIPTION |
|
Ohm’s Law |
Relationship between voltage drop across an electrical component and the current flowing through it. |
|
Kirchhoff’s Laws |
The algebraic sum of the currents which meet at any point is zero. |
|
Conservation of Energy |
In all interactions of mass, the total energy is conserved |
|
Conservation of Mass |
For any collision the vector sum of the moments of the colliding bodies after collision equals the vector sum of their moments before the collision. I think this Law is incorrectly copied. drd |
|
Conservation of Momentum |
For any collision the vector sum of the moments of the colliding bodies after collision equals the vector sum of their moments before the collision. |
|
Entropy |
In all energy interactions in a closed system, order decreases. |
|
Boyle’s Law for gases |
At a constant temperature the volume of a given quantity of any gas varies inversely as the pressure to which the gas is subjected. |
|
Kepler’s Laws |
The motion of the planets, in relation to that of the sun are ellipses, at one focus of which the sun is situated. |
|
Pascal’s Law |
Pressure exerted at any point upon a confined liquid is transmitted undiminished in all directions. |
Practices in technology are subject to dynamic change. In fact, because technology is being widely employed in society, new discoveries are common and verification or rejection tends to be much more rapid than in theoretical fields where there is little applied technology. A good teaching practice is to contrast one technological practice or theory with alternative technologies. Which works best is a particular application?
Teaching Theoretical Science
It is best to teach the theories as potentially useful ideas, which should be kept in mind when problems arise that seem to be addressed by the theory. Rather than teach the students to believe or affirm theories, it is better to encourage the students to understand the theories and the evidence and reasoning behind them. Students should be encouraged and trained in critical thinking by assigning them to select popular theories and research the history, proponents, evidence and reasoning that led to the popularity of the theory. This will help students gain abilities to critically analyze scientific theories they encounter the rest of their lives, giving them much better scientific literacy, enabling them to contribute wisely to public discourse that involves scientific questions. This approach will also contribute to the expansion of true knowledge.
Serious theoretical inquiry should be reserved for academic levels that are sufficiently scientifically literate to utilize the intellectual tools of the trade. Presenting complex theories to students who are not qualified to examine the assumptions, data, or reasoning, is not education, but indoctrination.
When teaching theoretical science, teachers should always be aware that technology may result from theoretical science. Technology is not distinguished from theoretical science by absence of theory. On the contrary, it is distinguished often by having preceded theory, and by utilizing facts and theory that has been verified to be viable knowledge (science).
Teaching Natural history and origins research
Theories about the past, regardless of how many scientists endorse them, cannot be subjected to the same rigorous testing standards required of other theories, therefore, they should always be presented more tentatively than other science. In the science classroom, students should not be tested about such theories in a manner that causes the "correct" answer to require an affirmation of the theory. If the local Board or teacher feels the subject should be taught, it is quite easy to phrase questions in such a manner as to evaluate understanding of the theory without requiring affirmation. The same degree of skepticism, critique, analysis, and presentation of alternate natural history and origins research theories should be encouraged as is recommended for all other theories.
Tools, Concepts and Methods of Science
There are a number of tools, concepts and methods that are used across multiple disciplines of science. These tools, concepts and methods are embedded within and across the seven science standards presented in this document. These tools that investigators use in their attempts to understand and explain the cosmos are listed and explained below.
Systems: The natural and designed world is complex; it is too large and complicated to investigate and comprehend all at once. Scientists and students learn to define small portions for the convenience of investigations. The units of investigation can be referred to as systems, where a system is an organized group of related objects or components that form a whole. Systems are categorized as open, closed, or isolated, and can consist of organisms, machines, fundamental particles, galaxies, numbers, and cardiovascular systems. Systems typically have boundaries, components, resources, flow (input and output), and feedback.
Order: Sequential and positional relationships of events and components are often keys to understanding their function and purpose.
Organization: Types and levels of organizations provide useful ways of thinking about the world. Types of organization include the periodic table of elements and the classification of organisms. Physical systems can be described at different levels of organization - such as fundamental particles, atoms, and molecules. Living systems also have different levels of organizations - for example, cells, tissues, organs, organisms, populations, and communities.
Observation: Observation is similar and related to experimentation, but frequently refers to information gathered from careful investigation of existing systems as opposed to contrived events designed to produce observations (experiments). In the scientific method, results of Measurements, Experiments and Observations are evaluated inductively. (See experimentation, deduction, or induction below)
Experimentation: Experiments are typically contrived or planned observations. They are important in both acquiring data for learning about natural systems and falsifying or verifying theories.
Measurement: Measurements are planned observations, using accepted conventions, to describe properties of objects and systems. Examples of measurements are dimensions, velocity, acceleration, mass and weight. It is extremely difficult to draw detailed conclusions about systems without measurement.
Evidence: Evidence consists of information collected from experiments, observations, measurements, etc. on which scientific explanations are based. Using evidence to understand interactions helps investigators to predict changes in natural and designed systems.
Change: Change is an observed characteristic of the cosmos that all human observers must recognize in order to understand or formulate theories about the properties of systems and objects. In order even to begin scientific investigation, one must understand that "change" is universally understood as an effect produced by adequate causes. The most common purpose of scientific investigation is to understand the causes of observed change. A common error is to mistake the change for a cause; learning to recognize this error should be part of the teaching of critical thinking.
Constancy: Most things in the cosmos are subject to forces and processes that result in change; some properties of objects and processes are currently understood to be constant (e.g., speed of light, charge of an electron, total mass and energy in the universe). Students should realize that constancy is itself a theory reinforced by experiment, observation and induction. It is verified only within the context of current measurement technology.
Deductive Reasoning: Deduction is the reasoning process that draws conclusions about a subset of the whole (the "particulars, Aristotle called them) based on beliefs or knowledge about the whole.. Deduction is a valid tool in science and math. All the theorems of Plane Geometry, for example, are proved to be true using mathematical deduction. In science it is used especially in technology where general principles are applied to specific problems. However, it should be remembered that any deduction, typically expressed as an equation, may appear more impressive than it actually is. Since in natural science all general principles are derived by experimentation, observation and induction, all deduction is based either on assumption, induction or both. Therefore, no matter how elegant, deduction cannot be any better than the data and inductive reasoning that furnished the general principle.
Equilibrium: A physical state in which forces and changes occur in opposite and offsetting directions, such as opposite forces at the same magnitude, or offsetting changes occurring at equal rates is called equilibrium. Steady state, balance, and homeostasis also describe equilibrium states. Interacting units of matter tend toward equilibrium states in which the energy is distributed as randomly and uniformly as possible.
Inductive Reasoning: Inductive reasoning is the basis for empirical scientific inquiry; it is the reasoning process that draws conclusions about the whole from observations about the parts (particulars). In trying to understand the cosmos man must cope with the fact that it is extremely large, complex, and interrelated; man can never put it all into a laboratory and make it and make it perform for him. Measurements, experiments and observations, in and of themselves, do not formulate or verify theories. The results of these activities must be evaluated by human reasoning. Using inductive strategies the scientist examines as much of the data associated with the issue he is perusing as he can, then attempts to draw conclusions (theories, etc.) about the whole. Theories, even though they seem to adequately "explain" all known data and thus, may be useful, are often incorrect; this is especially a problem when the whole is much larger than the pieces examined. Conclusions or theories must be exhaustively tested before being accepted as valid. If further research provides data a theory cannot account for, the theory must be changed or discarded.
Explanations: Theories, Models, Hypotheses and Laws. Theories, models, hypotheses and laws are attempts by man to explain the content and or behavior of objects and systems. These scientific explanations incorporate existing scientific knowledge that consists of observations and data from experiments. Such explanations are tentative schemes that should correspond to real objects. Models may be used by theoretical scientists to describe their theories. Models are frequently used by engineers and applied scientists in simulating designs and processes. These models may take many forms, including physical objects, engineering designs, mathematical equations, and computer simulations that incorporate scientific theories which have been rigorously verified to the extent that they have been widely employed or are widely accepted as laws.
Paradigm A paradigm is a philosophical frame of reference under which people make personal and scientific judgments and assessments. It is the frame of reference within which data and observations are interpreted. Explanations and interpretation of observations and data are always biased by the paradigm under which the observer is operating. Paradigms are generally outside of empirical verification.
Overview:
The Kansas Science Education Standards are divided into seven areas called "standards". These standards are general statements of what students should know, understand, and be able to do in the natural sciences over the course of their K-12 education. These standards are:
The traditional subject matter disciplines of science (biology, physics, chemistry, etc.) are embedded within the context of the seven standards. The standards are interwoven ideas, however, not separate entities, and should be taught as interwoven ideas. These standards are clustered for grade levels K-2, 3-4, 5-8, and 9-12.
Science as Inquiry:
Inquiry is central to science learning and to the science progress. When engaging in inquiry, students describe objects and events, ask questions, construct explanations, test those explanations against current scientific knowledge, and communicate their ideas to others. They identify assumptions, use critical and logical thinking, identify faulty reasoning and consider alternative explanations. In this way, students actively develop an understanding of science by combining scientific knowledge with reasoning and thinking skills. As a result of such experiences, students will be empowered to add to the growing body of scientific knowledge. Historically, many innovations in science require that the currently popular theories be challenged and then changed. Therefore, the skills learned in inquiry should not be limited to the experiments that the students do in the classroom. In addition, students will learn to identify the assumptions that underlie the hypotheses, theories and laws taught to them in the classroom.
Physical Science:
Physical science encompasses the traditional disciplines of physics and chemistry. Students should develop an understanding of physical science including: properties, changes of properties of matter, motion and force, velocity, structure of atoms, chemical reactions, and the interaction of energy and matter and their applications in the other sciences such as biology, medicine and earth science.
Life Science:
Students will develop an understanding of biological concepts. Students should learn: the characteristics of life, the needs of living organisms, their life cycles, their habitats, the molecular basis of heredity, and reproduction. They should also learn how organisms interact with their environment, energy transfer from the sun and through the environmental system, the chemical basis for life and behavior of organisms. Students should be able to apply process skills to explore and demonstrate an understanding of the structure and function in living systems, heredity, regulation and behavior, and ecosystems.
Life Science is interactive with Physical Science, Earth and Space Science and Science In Personal and Environmental Perspectives. Students should be able to demonstrate an understanding of the interrelationship among these standards.
Earth and Space Science:
While Earth and Space Science encompasses the traditional disciplines of geology and astronomy and the basic subject matter of these disciplines will be taught, it also includes interactive elements with the Life Sciences, the Physical Sciences, Technology and the environment. Students will develop and understanding of the Earth system, the solar system and the cosmos.
Technology:
Technology encompasses the advances made by man to improve his condition and to develop the tools he needs to accomplish his goals.
Science In Personal and Environmental Perspectives:
Students should develop an appreciation and understanding of personal and community health, natural resources, natural and human-induced hazards and improvements, and technological implications in quality of life. All students should be able to research and assess prevailing environmental and personal health issues and develop a rational understanding of man’s relationship to the environment.
History and Nature of Science:
Understanding the history, nature of science and limitations of science is fundamental to scientific learning. Students will learn to distinguish between science and other forms of knowledge or beliefs such as philosophy and religion. Science uses observation, experimentation, induction and deduction, and experimental, observational and statistical verification strategies in formulating and testing the validity of explanations for the behavior of the world around us. These explanations ought to be testable, repeatable, falsifiable, open to criticism and not based upon authority. It is also important that students learn to distinguish between scientific information (data), scientific explanations (hypotheses, theories, laws, principles, etc.) and the scientific method (the process of arriving at and verifying scientific explanations). Students should learn the applications and limits of science and the inductive and deductive reasoning processes that underlie science.
Benchmarks, Indicators and Examples
Each standard contains a series of benchmarks, which describe what students should be able to do at the end of a certain point in their education (e.g., grade 2, 4, 8, 12). Each benchmark contains a series of indicators, which identify what it means for students to meet a benchmark. Indicators are frequently followed by examples, which are specific, concrete ideas.
Benchmarks: are specific statements of what students should know and be able to do at a specified point in their schooling. Benchmarks are used to measure students’ progress toward meeting a standard. In the Kansas Science Education Standards, benchmarks are defined for grades 2, 4, 8 and 12.
Indicators: are statements of the knowledge skills which students demonstrate in order to meet a benchmark. Indicators are critical to understanding the benchmarks and standards and are to be met by all students. The set of indicators listed under each benchmark is not listed in priority order nor should the list be considered as all inclusive. The list of indicators and examples should be considered as representative, but not as comprehensive or all-inclusive.
Examples: are specific, concrete instances of ideas or activities of what is called for by an indicator. Like the indicators themselves, examples are considered to be representative, but not comprehensive or all-inclusive.
By The End Of SECOND GRADE
STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY
As a result of the activities for grades K-2, all students should begin to develop an understanding of the steps and tools used in doing scientific inquiry.
Benchmark 1: All students will begin to develop abilities necessary to do scientific inquiries. Not every activity will involve all of the steps of scientific inquiry nor must any particular sequences of these steps be followed. Inquiry involves asking a simple question, completing an investigation, answering the question, and presenting the results to others.
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Identify characteristics of objects. Example: State characteristics of leaves, shells, water, and air.
4 2. Classify and arrange groups by a variety of characteristics.
Example: Group seeds by color, texture, size; group objects by whether they float or sink; group rocks by texture, color, and hardness.
4 3. Use appropriate materials and tools to collect information.
Example: Uses magnifiers, balances, scales, thermometers measuring cups, and spoons.
4. Ask and answer questions about objects, organisms, and events in their environment. Example: The student will ask, "What must I do to balance an object on my finger?"
Example: The student will ask "Which parts of a fish and a bird are the same" and "which parts are different." Why are the different parts important for each organism?
5. Describe an observation orally or pictorially. Example: Draw pictures of plant growth on a daily basis; note color, number of leaves.
Example: Tell how a clam shell found along a creek bank looks like a fossil clam shell.
By The End Of SECOND GRADE
STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
As a result of the activities in grades K-2, all students should be encouraged to explore the world by observing and manipulating common objects and materials in their environment.
Benchmark 1: All students will begin to develop abilities to describe objects.
All students will begin to compare, describe, and sort objects.
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Observe properties and measure those properties using age appropriate tools and materials.
Example: Compare size, weight, shape, color, temperature and texture of objects.
4 2. Describe objects by the materials from which they are made.
Example: Compare materials made from wood, metal and cloth, and plastics.
4 3. Separate or sort a group of objects of materials.
Example: Compare shapes, sizes, weights, color and textures of objects.
4 4. Compare solids and liquids.
Example: Compare the properties of water with the properties of wood.
4 5. Record observations in a chart that demonstrates classification, e.g., weight vs material for blocks of the same size or relative color of different concentrations of solution.
By The End Of SECOND GRADE
STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
As a result of the activities for grades K-2, all students will begin to develop an understanding of biological concepts.
Benchmark 1: All students will develop an understanding of the characteristics of living things.
Through direct experiences, students will observe living things, their life cycles, and their habitats.
Indicators: The student will:
4 1. Discuss that living things need air, water, and food.
Example: What students need…what plants need…what animals need.
- Observe life cycles of different living things.
Example: Butterflies, meal worms, plants and humans.
3. Observe living things in various environments. Example: Classroom plants, nature walks in your own area, various field trips, terrariums, aquariums.
4 4. Examine the characteristics of living things.
Example: Butterflies have wings. Plants may have leaves and roots. People have skin and hair.
By The End Of SECOND GRADE
STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE
As a result of the activities for grades K-2, all students should be encouraged to observe closely the objects and materials in their environment.
Benchmark 1: All students will begin to describe properties of Earth materials.
Earth materials may include rock, soil, air and water.
Indicators: The student will:
4 1. Group Earth materials.
Example: Describe and compare soils by color and texture, sort pebbles and rocks by size, shape and color.
4 2. Describe where earth materials are found.
Example: Around the playground, on a field trip, in their own yard.
Benchmark 2: All students will observe and compare objects in the sky.
The sun, moon, stars, birds and other objects such as airplanes have properties that can be observed and compared.
Indicators: The student will:
1. Distinguish between manmade and non-manmade objects in the sky. Example: Birds vs. Airplanes.
- Recognize sun, moon and stars.
Example: Observe day and night sky regularly.
4 3. Describe that the sun provides light and warmth.
Example: Feel heat from the sun on the face and skin. Observe shadows.
Benchmark 3: All students will begin to describe changes in the weather.
Weather includes snow, rain, sleet, wind and violent storms.
Indicators: The student will:
1. Observe changes in the weather from day to day. Example: Draw pictures
- Record weather changes daily
Example: Weather charts, calendars and logs.
By The End Of SECOND GRADE
STANDARD 5: TECHNOLOGY
As a result of the activities for grades K-2, all students should have a variety of educational experiences that involve technology. As can be seen in the following sections, the benchmarks are developed in greater depth in subsequent grades as students’ interests develop.
Benchmark 1: All students will learn about technology in the world around them.
Indicators: The students will:
1. Explore the way things work. Example: Observe the inner workings of toys, clocks, telephones, toasters, music boxes, magnetic compass and measuring tools such as tape measure, spirit level and spring scale. The student should identify the feature of the items that make it work the way it does, ex: tuned pins in a music box, gear train and escapement in clocks, bubble in curved tube full of liquid.
4 2. Experience science through technology in measuring tools.
Example: Analyze balances, electronic and liquid filled thermometers, and hand lenses and bug viewers. Explain the features found, and tell how the feature is essential to the function of the device.
3. Experience science through technology in the kitchen Example: Explore simple machines, i.e., wedge, lever and wheel, and their combinations, ramp, screw, pulley, roller and axle from the common kitchen items, such as sausage grinder and rolling pins. Identify the simple machines and discover the way they make tasks easier to perform.
Example: try to find how many machines are built into a kitchen device like a hand powered egg beater - a crank or level.
By The End Of SECOND GRADE
STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
As a result of the activities for grades K-2, all students should have a variety of experiences that provide initial understanding for various science-related personal environmental challenges.
This standard should be integrated with physical science, life science and earth & space science standards.
Benchmark 1: All students will begin to understand their own health.
Health encompasses safety, personal hygiene, exercise and nutrition.
Indicators: The student will:
1. Discuss that safety and security are basic human needs. Examples: Traffic signals, crosswalks and not talking to strangers.
2. Discuss weather safety procedures.
Example: Practice tornado drill procedures, talk about the danger of lightning and flooding.
3. Engage in personal care.
Examples: Washing hands, brushing teeth, wearing appropriate clothing, taking baths, being careful what is put in one’s mouth.
4. Discuss healthy foods.
Example: Cut out pictures of foods and sort into four healthy food groups, discussing the benefits of each group.
By The End Of SECOND GRADE
STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
As a result of the activities for grades K-2, all students will begin to be aware of science as being empirical in nature. Students will learn about people in science from history.
This standard should be integrated with physical science, life science and earth & space science standards.
Benchmark 1: All students will begin to learn the empirical nature of science.
Indicators: The student will:
4 1. Use their senses to see what happens when they do an experiment. Examples: Place a banana or an orange (with and without the skin) or crayon in water. Hold an M&M or a chocolate chip or a raisin in one hand. See what happens when you rub your hands together very fast.
2. Learn about people in science.
Examples: Short stories, films, videos and parents who are involved in science.
By The End Of FOURTH GRADE
STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY
As a result of the activities for grades 3-4, students should develop the abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry.
Benchmark 1: All students will continue to develop the abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry. However, not every activity will involve all of the steps of scientific inquiry nor must any particular sequences of these steps be followed. Students will ask questions that can be investigated using scientific inquiry, design experiments that will answer these questions and perform the investigations.
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Ask questions that they can answer by scientific investigation.
Example: Will oil and water mix? How much water will a sponge hold?
Example: What happens when an acid (vinegar) and a base (baking soda) are mixed? How long will it react?
4 2. Plan and conduct a simple investigation.
Example: Design a test of the wet strength of paper towels; experiment with plant growth; experiment to find ways to prevent soil erosion.
4 3. Employ appropriate equipment and tools to gather data.
Example: Use a balance to find the mass of a wet paper towel, meter sticks to measure length of the room, their height, arm span.
4 4. Begin developing the abilities to communicate, critique, and analyze their own investigations and interpret the work of other students. Example: Describe investigations with pictures, written language, oral presentations.
By The End Of FOURTH GRADE
STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
As a result of the activities in grades 3-4, all students will compare, describe and sort as they begin to form explanations of the world.
Benchmark 1: All students will develop abilities to describe objects.
Through observation, manipulation and classification of common objects, students observe and describe the similarities and differences of the objects.
Indicators: The student will:
4 1. Observe properties and measure those properties using appropriate tools.
Example: Observe the size, weight, shape, color and temperature of objects using balances, thermometers and other measurement tools.
4 2. Describe objects by the materials from which they are made.
Example: Separate or sort a group of objects by the materials from which they are made.
4 3. Describe objects by more than one property.
Example: Observe that an object could be hard, round and rough.
4 4. Observe and record how one object reacts with another object or substance.
Example: Mix baking soda and vinegar and observe how the mixture fizzes.
4 5. Recognize the difference between solids and liquids.
Example: Solid has a shape, liquid does not. Observe the difference between two disparate solids, e.g. plastic and steel. Observe the difference between two disparate liquids, e.g. water and salad oil.
Benchmark 2: All students will manipulate and describe the movement of objects and record observations.
When students describe and manipulate objects, they also begin to focus on position and movement of objects.
Indicators: The students will:
1. Move objects by pushing, pulling, throwing, spinning, dropping and rolling. Example: Spin a top; roll a ball.
4 2. Demonstrate locations of objects.
Example: Describe locations as up, down, in front or behind.
4 3. Observe forces required to produce motion Example: Push block on flat surface, then ramp. Blow on wadded paper.
Example: Have a tug-of-war to demonstrate balanced (equal, opposite) forces. Static equals no motion. Dynamic equals motion of unbalanced forces.
4 4. Demonstrate movement.
Example: Direction of force is always the same as direction of motion.
Benchmark 3: All students will begin to recognize and demonstrate what makes sounds.
The concept of sound is very abstract. However, by investigating a variety of sounds made by common objects, students can form a connection between sounds the objects make and the materials from which the objects are made. Plastic objects make a different sound than do wooden objects.
Indicators: The student will:
1. Discriminate between sounds made by different objects. Example: Listen to drums, other musical instruments, cans, gourds, plastic spoons, pennies, plastic disks and compare the sounds they make.
Benchmark 4: All students will experiment with electricity and magnetism.
Repeated activities involving simple electrical circuits can help students develop the concept that electrical circuits require a complete loop through which an electric current can pass. Magnets attract and repel each other and certain kinds of other materials.
Indicators: The student will:
4 1. Construct a simple circuit.
Example: Use a battery, bulb and a wire to light a bulb; make a motor run; produce sound; make an electromagnet.
4 2. Demonstrate that magnets attract and repel.
4 3. Design a simple experiment to determine whether various objects will be attracted to magnets.
By The End Of FOURTH GRADE
STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
As a result of the activities for grades 3-4, all students will build an understanding of biological concepts through direct experience with living things, their life cycles, and their habitats.
Benchmark 1: All students will develop a knowledge of organisms in their environment.
The study of organisms should include observations and interactions within the natural world of the student.
Indicators: The Students will:
4 1. Compare and contrast structural characteristics and functions of different organisms. Example: Compare a meal worm to a guppy, compare a bean seed to a corn seed.
4 2. Compare basic needs of different organisms in their environment.
Example: Fish live in water compared to birds that do not.
3. Discuss ways humans and other organisms use their senses in their environments. Example: Food acquisition, shelter, defense.
Benchmark 2: All students will observe and illustrate the life cycles of various organisms.
Plants and animals have life cycles that have different beginnings, maturing into adults, reproducing, and eventually dying.
Indicators: The Students will:
4 1. Compare, contrast, and ask questions about the life cycles of various organisms.
Example: Seed to seedling to plant; larva to pupa to adult.
By The End Of FOURTH GRADE
STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE
As a result of the activities for grades 3-4, all students will be encouraged to observe closely the objects, materials, and changes in their environment, note their properties, distinguish one from another, and develop their own explanations of how things become the way they are which are consistent with observations.
Benchmark 1: All students will develop an understanding of the properties of earth materials.
Earth materials may include rock, soil, and water. Playgrounds or parks are convenient study sites to observe.
Indicators: The students will:
1. Observe a variety of earth materials in their environment. Examples: Rocks, soil, sand, air, and water.
4 2. Collect, observe, and become aware of properties of various soils.
Example: Students could bring in samples of soils from their surroundings and observe color, texture, and reaction to water.
4 3. Experiment with a variety of soils.
Example: By planting seeds in a variety of soil samples, students can compare the effect of different soils on plant growth.
4 4. Describe properties of many different kinds of rocks.
Example: Bring rocks from the playground, immerse in water, and observe color, texture, and reaction to liquids.
5. Observe fossils and discuss how fossils provide evidence of plants and animals that lived in the past. Example: Provide a variety of fossils for observation. Discuss how fossils are formed; how long it takes an organism to decay or to be scavenged; how long it takes an organism to be fossilized; whether or not all fossilized organisms were dead at the time of burial (i.e. closed clam fossils).
Benchmark 2: All students will be guided to observe and describe objects in the sky.
The sun, moon, stars, clouds, birds, and other objects such as airplanes have properties that can be observed and compared.
Indicators: The students will:
1. Observe the moon and stars. Example: Sketch the position of the moon in relation to a tree, rooftop, or building.
2. Observe and compare the length of shadows.
Example: Students can observe the movement of an object’s shadow during the course of a day, or construct simple sundials.
4 3. Discuss that the sun provides light and heat to maintain the temperature of the earth. Example: When on the playground and the sun goes behind a cloud, discuss why it seems cooler.
Benchmark 3: all students will develop an ability to describe changes in the earth and weather.
If the students revisit a study site regularly, they will develop an understanding that the earth’s surface and weather are constantly changing.
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Describe changes in the surface of the earth.
Example: Students will observe erosion and changes in plant growth at a study site.
4 2. Observe, describe, and record daily and seasonal weather changes.
Example: Write observations on a calendar or a log.
By The End Of FOURTH GRADE
STANDARD 5: TECHNOLOGY
As a result of the activities for grades 3-4, all students will have a variety of educational experiences that involve technology. They will begin to understand the design process, as well as develop the ability to solve simple design problems that are appropriately challenging for their developmental level. To do this, the student should understand applications for fasteners, adhesives, sealants, and which ones are appropriate with different materials. For example nails work well in wood, but are not to be used with metal, or brittle materials like glass.
Benchmark 1: All students will begin to develop the ability to apply technology to solve problems.
Problem solving should occur within the setting of the home and school.
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Identify a simple problem; design an approach/plan; implement the plan; solve and check for reasonableness and communicate the results. Examples: Compare two types of string to see which is best for lifting different objects; design the best paper airplane, or terrarium;
2. Consider alternate techniques to make living spaces comfortable for humans. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the viable options. Experiment to find a low cost but effective cooling technique for homes.
Examples: Compare evaporative coolers, oscillating fans, shades or reflective draperies.
Benchmark 2: All students will begin to develop an understanding about technology.
Student’s abilities in technological problem solving can be developed by firsthand experience in tackling tasks with a technological purpose. They also can study technological products and systems in their world: zippers, coat hooks, can openers, ten-speed bicycles and automobiles. Observe the basic mechanisms apparent in the former examples, and find these mechanisms in other technological products such as pocket watches, adjustable wrenches, etc..
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Discuss the scientific method as a way of investigating questions about their world. Example: How does a zipper work? Does the same process repeat every time it is performed. How does a can opener work? What simple machines are applied in these everyday mechanisms?
2. Invent a product to solve problems around the home, classroom or office.
Example: Invent a new use for old products; potato masher, strainer, carrot peeler. Use a juice can to invent something useful.
4 3. Understand the principle of mechanical advantage as applied to simple hand tools. Show how these are applied in daily experience. 4. Investigate tools found in the kitchen and workshop. Sort each device into categories of wedge, lever, wheel, impact.
5. Investigate how scientists use specialized and ordinary tools to observe and measure the world of nature about them.
Examples: Research on the Internet; interview the weatherman; research in the library; call or visit a laboratory.
Benchmark 3: All students will begin to distinguish between natural and human made objects.
Some patterns occur in nature; others have been designed and made by people to solve human problems and enhance the quality of life.
Indicators: The student will:
4 1. Compare, contrast, and sort designed versus random objects.
Example: Real flowers vs. Silk flowers; hexagonal honeycombs in: beehives, aircraft wings, and athletic shoes; geometric spirals in: sunflower seed heads, and multiple eyes of flies; lenses in: hand magnifier, eyes of mammals and birds, and cameras and projector lenses.
4 2. Use appropriate tools when observing natural and man-made objects.
Example: A microscope, hand magnifier, telephoto camera lens or astronomical telescope, all use lenses to measure and examine different things. It is important to use the right tool for the scale and scope of the item to be measured.
3. Ask questions about natural or man-made objects and discuss the reasoning behind their answers. Example: The teacher will ask, "Is this a man-made object? Why do you think so?"
4. Investigate the various systems that connect utilities to the student's home: Electricity, Gas, Water, Sanitation, Telecommunication, etc. Find the source or entry of the system and points where the utility can be accessed. Find the places where the system is controlled. Determine the Technological Discipline that is responsible for each of the systems.
Example: The students will compare the pressure in a domestic water pipe, and lack of pressure in a sewer line, or in rain guttering and downspouts,. Compare the pressure in a natural gas or propane pipe with vacuum headers, etc.
Example: How is each utility system arranged the way it is in the home?
Example: What means is there for determination of the consumption of each utility. Why are there meters on some utilities, but not on others in the home.
Example: Investigate the costs of each system on a periodic basis: i.e., What costs his family more: electricity, water, Natural Gas, sewage treatment, or rain guttering?
By The End Of FOURTH GRADE
STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
As a result of the activities for grades 3-4, all students will learn about personal health and hygiene as well as environmental knowledge.
Benchmark 1: All students will develop basic understanding of physiology and health.
Health involves physical well being, including hygienic practices, and proper nutrition.
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Discuss that safety involves precautions against danger, risk or injury.
Example: Classroom discussions could include bike safety, water safety, weather safety, sun protection.
4 2. Assume some responsibility for their own health.
Example: Dental hygiene, cleanliness, and exercise
4 3. Discuss how various foods contribute to health.
Example: Discuss healthy foods, make a healthy snack. Compare nutrition information on food labels to determine how healthy it is.
Benchmark 2: All students will demonstrate an awareness of changes in the environment.
Through classroom discussions, students can begin to recognize environmental processes.
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Define pollution. Identify the various sources of environmental pollutants, both natural and human. Example: Take two pollution walks, gathering examples of litter and trash on a street as well as leaves, droppings, conifer fronds and humus in the park or woods.
4 2. Develop personal actions to reduce playground pollution.
Example: After the pollution walk, student could develop a playground cleanliness policy.
By The End Of FOURTH GRADE
STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
As a result of the activities for grades 3-4, students will learn that science is testable, repeatable and has limits. Students will be able to determine the difference between data, explanations and the scientific method and students will learn about people in science.
Experiences of investigating and thinking about explanations, not memorization, will provide fundamental ideas about the history and nature of science. This standard should be integrated with physical science, and earth & space science standards.
Benchmark 1: Students will perform testable and repeatable experiments.
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Ask a question that can be answered by scientific experiment and do an experiment that will answer the question. Then repeat the experiment to see if they can get the same results. Examples: What will happen if a plant is under light for different lengths of time? What will happen if the length or width of the wing of a paper airplane is changed? What will happen if vinegar is dropped on different kinds of rocks?
4 2. Discover that science has limits because a universal negative cannot be proven.
Example: Try to prove that dinosaurs are extinct. Show examples of living fossils -i.e., a coelacanth.
Benchmark 2: Determine the difference between data, explanations and the scientific method.
Indicators: The student will:
4 1. Gather data and develop an explanation about the results of an experiment. Tell what is data, what is the explanation and what was the method. Examples: The amount of growth of a plant is the data. An explanation might be that more light and the nature of the plant caused more growth and the scientific method is doing the repeatable and testable experiment and developing the explanation.
Benchmark 3: Learn about people in science.
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Learn about the contributions people have made to science. Examples: Short stories, films, videos, and speakers.
By The End Of EIGHTH GRADE
STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY
As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students should develop the abilities to do scientific inquiry and be able to demonstrate how scientific inquiry is applied.
Benchmark 1: Demonstrate abilities necessary to do the processes of scientific inquiry.
Students should develop the skills of investigation and the understanding that scientific inquiry is guided by knowledge, observations, questions, and a design which identifies and controls variables to gather evidence to formulate an answer to the original question. Students are to be provided opportunities to engage in full and partial inquiries in order to develop the skills of inquiry.
Teachers can facilitate success by allowing students to choose interesting questions, monitor design plans, provide relevant examples of effective observation and organization strategies and by checking and improving skills in the use of instruments, technology and techniques. Students at the middle level need guidance in identifying assumptions and paradigms, using evidence to build explanations, inference, and models, guidance to think critically and logically, and to make the relationships between evidence and explanations.
Indicators: The students will:
7 1. Identify questions that can be answered through scientific investigations.
Example: Explore properties and phenomena of materials, such as a balloon, string, straw, and tape and generate questions to investigate.
7 2. Design and conduct a scientific investigation.
Example: Students design and conduct an investigation on the question, "Which paper towel absorbs the most?" Materials include different kinds of paper towels, water, and a measuring cup. Components of the investigation should include background and hypothesis, identification of independent variables, dependent variable, constants, list of materials, procedures, collection and analysis data, and conclusions.
7 3. Use appropriate tools, mathematics, technology, and techniques to gather, analyze and interpret data.
Example: Given an investigative question, students determine what to measure, how to measure, display results in graph or other graphic format.
7 4. Think critically to make the relationships between evidence and logical conclusions.
Example: Students check data to determine: Was the question answered? Was the hypothesis supported/not supported? Did this design work? How could this experiment be improved? What other questions could be investigated?
Example: Develop an experiment that will report the number of accidents as reported in the newspaper and correlate the day of the accident with the phase of the moon
7 5. Apply mathematical reasoning to scientific inquiry.
Examples: Look for patterns from the mean of multiple trials, such as rate of dissolving relative to different temperatures. Use observations for inductive and deductive reasoning, such as explaining a person’s energy level after a change in eating habits (i.e. use Likert-type scale). State relationships in data, such as variables which vary directly or inversely.
Example: Measure the rate that salt dissolves and the maximum amount of salt that will dissolve in one cup of water. Measure the effect of various temperatures of the water on the rate of dissolving salt.
7 6. Identify assumptions used in the reasoning process
Example: Is there a statement that must be true to arrive at the explanation.
7 7. Communicate scientific procedures and explanations.
Example: Students present a report of their investigation so that others understand it and can replicate the design.
Benchmark 2: Apply different kinds of investigations to different kinds of questions.
Some investigations involve observing and describing objects, organisms or events. Investigations can also involve collecting specimens, experiments, seeking more information, discovery of new objects and phenomena, and creating models to explain the phenomena. Instructional activities of scientific inquiry need to engage students in identifying and shaping questions for investigations. Different kinds of questions suggest different kinds of investigations.
To help focus, students need to frame questions such as "What do we want to find out about?" "How can we make the most accurate observations?" "If we do this, then what do we expect will happen?" Students need instruction to develop the ability to refine and refocus broad and ill-defined questions.
Indicators: The students will:
7 1. Differentiate between a qualitative and a quantitative investigation
Example: Observe a decomposing compost pile and consider the questions to be asked. Decide which questions lead toward the collection of quantitative and/or qualitative data. Explain how to collect quantitative and qualitative data?
Example: Each student designs a question to investigate. Class analyzes all questions to classify as qualitative or quantitative. After reading a science news article, identify variables and write a qualitative and/or quantitative investigative question related to the topic of the article.
10 2. Develop questions and adapt the inquiry process to guide an investigation.
Example: Adapt an existing lab or activity to: write a different question, identify another variable, and/or adapt the procedure to guide a new investigation.
Benchmark 3: Analyze how science advances through new ideas, scientific investigations, skepticism, and examining evidence of varied explanations.
Scientific investigations often times result in new ideas and phenomena for study. These generate new investigations in the scientific community. Science advances through skepticism. Asking questions and querying other scientist’s explanations is part of scientific inquiry. Scientists evaluate the proposed explanations by examining and comparing evidence, identifying faulty reasoning, and suggesting other alternatives.
Much time can be spent asking students to scrutinize evidence and explanations, but to develop critical thinking skills students must be allowed this time. Data can be reviewed and compared with other data providing insights beyond the original investigation. This teaching and learning strategy allows students to discuss, debate, question, explain, clarify, compare, and propose new thinking through social discourse. Students will apply this strategy to their own investigations and to current scientific theories.
Indicators: The students will:
7 1. After doing an investigation, generate alternative methods of investigation and/or further questions for inquiry. Example: Ask "What would happen if..?" questions to generate new ideas for investigation.
10 2. Determine evidences which support/deny a scientific theory/hypothesis. Example: Review the traditional explanation for stratified rocks and analyze the evidence. Review other sources for information that will support or deny the explanation [polystrate fossils, turbidity currents].
10 3. Identify faulty reasoning of conclusions which go beyond evidence and/or are not supported by data in a current scientific hypothesis or theory. Example: Analyze hypotheses about characteristics of and extinction of dinosaurs. Identify the assumptions behind the hypothesis and show the weaknesses in the reasoning that led to the hypothesis.
Example: Analyze hypotheses about why we still see short period comets [Oort cloud]. Identify the assumptions used to arrive at the hypothesis. Examine and list the evidence. Is the hypothesis reasonable based on the evidence?
Example: Examine several methods for determining the age of the earth, the earth moon system or the solar system such as: helium in the atmosphere, the moon receding from the earth, the shrinking sun and radiometric dating. Compare the answers with the current accepted age of the earth.
10 4. Suggest alternative explanations to scientific hypotheses or theories. Example: At least some stratified rocks may have been laid down quickly, such as Mount Etna in Italy or Mount St. Helens in Washington state.
By The End Of EIGHTH GRADE
STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students should be able to apply process skills to develop an understanding of physical science including: properties, changes of properties of matter, motion and forces, and transfer of energy.
Benchmark 1: Observe, compare and classify properties of matter.
Substances have characteristic properties. Substances often are placed in categories if they react or act in similar ways. An example of a category is metals. There are more than 100 known elements that combine in a multitude of ways to produce compounds, which account for the living and non-living substances we encounter. Middle level students have the capability of understanding relationships among properties of matter. For example, they are able to understand that density is a ratio of mass to volume, boiling point is affected by atmospheric pressure and solubility is dependent on pressure and temperature.
These relationships are developed by concrete activities that involve hands-on manipulation of apparatus, making quantitative measurements, and interpreting data using graphs. It is important to connect characteristics of matter to common experiences so that concepts can be reconstructed. Some relevant questions, are: "What happens in a pressure cooker?" "Why does adding oil to boiling rice and pasta keep it from boiling over?" "What is in antifreeze and how does it keep your radiator from freezing?" "Why do bridges have metal expansion joints?"
Indicators: The student will:
7 1. Explore properties of matter, including phases of matter, boiling point, solubility and density. Examples: Measure and graph the boiling point temperature for several different liquids. Graph the cooling curve of a freezing ice cream mixture. Observe substances that dissolve (sugar) and substances that do not dissolve (sand). Also, measure volume and mass for plastic and steel and for water and oil, then calculate density for each.
7 2. Distinguish components of various types of mixtures by using the characteristic properties of each original substance. Examples: Separate alcohol and water using distillation. Separate sand, iron filings and salt using a magnet and dissolving in water. Observe properties of kitchen powders (baking soda, salt, sugar, flour). Mix in various combinations, then identify by properties.
10 3. Categorize chemicals based on common properties.
Examples: Create operational definitions of metals and nonmetals and classify by observable chemical and physical properties.
Benchmark 2: Observe, explore and infer changes in properties of matter.
Substances react chemically in characteristic ways with other substances to form new substances (compounds) with different characteristic properties. Middle level students have the capability of inferring characteristics that are not directly observable. Students must state their reasons for inferring unobserved characteristics and what the characteristics are based upon. Students need opportunities to form relationships between what they can see and inferences of characteristics of matter and determine if these inferred characteristics always perform as indicated.
We cannot always see the products of chemical reactions, so the teacher can provide opportunities for the student to measure reactants and products to build the concept of conservation of mass. "Is mass lost when baking soda (solid) and vinegar (liquid) react to produce a gas?" "How could we design an experiment which would (safely) contain the reaction in a closed container in order to measure the materials before and after the reaction?" Students need to engage in activities that lead to these understandings.
Indicators: The students will:
7 1. Measure and graph the effects of temperature on matter.
Example: Change water from solid to liquid to gas using heat. Measure and graph temperature changes. Observe changes in volume occupied.
10 2. Recognize that total mass is conserved in chemical reactions.
Example: Measure the mass of an Alka Seltzer tablet, water, and a container with a lid. Then drop in tablet, close tightly, and measure the mass after the reaction. Repeat without lid and compare.
10 3. Show relationship of elements to compounds.
Example: Draw a diagram to show how different compounds are composed of elements in various combinations.
Benchmark 3: Investigate motion and forces.
All matter is subjected to forces that affect its position and motion. Relating motions to direction, amount of force, and/or speed allows students to graphically represent data for making comparisons. A moving object that is not being subjected to a force will continue to move in a straight line at a constant speed. The principle of inertia helps to explain many events such as sports actions, household accidents, and space walks. If more than one force acts upon an object moving along a straight line, the forces may reinforce each other or cancel each other out, depending on their direction and magnitude.
Students experience forces and motions in their daily lives when kicking balls, riding in a car, and walking on ice. Teachers should provide hands-on opportunities for students to experience these physical princip